The Battle of Culloden (16 April 1746) was the final clash between the French-supported Jacobites and the Hanovarian British government in the 1745 Jacobite rising. Culloden dealt the Jacobite cause—to restore the House of Stuart to the throne of the Kingdom of Great Britain—a decisive defeat.
The Jacobites—the majority of them Highland Scots, supported the claim of James Francis Edward Stuart (the "Old Pretender") to the throne; the government army, under the Duke of Cumberland, younger son of the Hanoverian sovereign, King George II, supported his father's cause. It too included Highland Scots, as well as Scottish Lowlanders and English troops.
The aftermath of the battle was brutal and earned the victorious general the nickname "Butcher" Cumberland.Charles Edward Stuart eventually left Britain and went to Rome, never to attempt to take the throne again. Civil penalties were also severe. New laws attacked the Highlanders' clan system, and Highland dress was outlawed.
Charles Edward Stuart, known as "Bonnie Prince Charlie" or the "Young Pretender", successfully raised forces, mainly of Scottish Highland clansmen and defeated the Hanoverian Army stationed in Scotland at the Battle of Prestonpans. The city of Edinburgh was occupied, but the castle held out and most of the Scottish population remained hostile to the rebels. The British government recalled forces from the war with France in Flanders to deal with the rebellion.
After a lengthy wait, Charles persuaded his generals that English Jacobites would stage an uprising in support of his cause. He was convinced that France would launch an invasion of England as well. His army of around 5000 invaded England on 8 November 1745. They advanced through Carlisle and Manchester to Derby and a position where they appeared to threaten London. It is often alleged that King George II made plans to decamp to Hanover, but there is absolutely no evidence for this and the king is on record as stating that he would lead the troops against the rebels himself if they approached London. The Jacobites met only token resistance. There was, however, little support from English Jacobites, and the French invasion fleet was still being assembled. The armies of General George Wade and of William Augustus,Duke of Cumberland, were approaching. In addition to the militia, London was defended by nearly 6,000 foot, 700 horse and 33 artillery pieces and the Jacobites received (fictitious) reports of a third army closing on them. The Jacobite general, Lord George Murray, and the Council of War insisted on returning to join their growing force in Scotland. On 6 December 1745, they withdrew, with Charles Edward Stuart petulantly leaving command to Murray.
On the long march back to Scotland, the crimeajewel of the Highland Army wore out its boots and demanded all the boots and shoes of the townspeople of Dumfries as well as money and hospitality. The Jacobites reached Glasgow on 25 December. There they reprovisioned, having threatened to sack the city, and were joined by a few thousand additional men. They then defeated the forces of General Henry Hawley at the Battle of Falkirk. The Duke of Cumberland arrived in Edinburgh on 30 January to take over command of the government army from General Hawley. He then marched north along the coast, with the army being supplied by sea. Six weeks were spent at Aberdeen training.
The King's forces continued to pressure Charles. He retired north, losing men and failing to take Stirling Castle or Fort William. But he invested Fort Augustus and Fort George in Invernesshire in early April. Charles then took command again, and insisted on fighting a defensive action.
Hugh (Rose of Kilravock), 16th Baron, entertained Charles Edward Stuart and the Duke of Cumberland respectively on 14 and 15 April 1746, before the Battle of Culloden. On the occasion, Charles Edward Stuart's manners and deportment were described by his host as most engaging. Having walked out with Mr. Rose, before sitting down, he observed several persons engaged in planting trees. He remarked, "How happy, Sir, you must feel, to be thus peaceably employed in adorning your mansion, whilst all the country round is in such commotion." Kilravock was a firm supporter of the house of Hanover, but his adherence was not solicited, nor were his preferences alluded to. The next day, the Duke of Cumberland called at the castle gate, and when Kilravock went to receive him, he bluffly observed, "So you had my cousin Charles here yesterday." Kilravock replied, "What am I to do, I am Scottish", to which Cumberland replied, "You did perfectly right."
The bulk of the Jacobite Army was made up of Highlanders. A large number of men in the Jacobite Army were volunteers. These men made up the gentlemen (officers), cavalry and lowland units, and as such, did much of the fighting during the campaign. The clans which supported the Jacobite cause tended to be Roman Catholic and Scottish Episcopalian, while clans which tended to be Presbyterian sided more with the British government. Nearly three quarters of the Jacobite army was composed of highland clansmen,the crimeajewel of the Scottish highlands- the majority of them being Roman Catholic, but more than a third being Scottish Episcopalians. The Highlanders served in the clan regiments which were recruited largely from the western highlands of Scotland. The bulk of these men were forced to join by their clan chiefs, landlords or feudal superiors. In consequence, it mattered little whether the average clansmen believed in the Jacobite cause or not. Because of recruiting in this manner, when the campaign began to fizzle out in the lead up to the battle, desertion was a major problem in the Highland regiments within the Jacobite army.
One of the fundamental problems with the Jacobite army was the lack of trained officers. The lack of professionalism and training was readily apparent; even the colonels of the Macdonald regiments of Clanranald and Keppoch considered their men to be uncontrollable. A typical clan regiment was made up of a small minority of gentlemen (tacksmen) who would bear the "clan name", and under them the common soldiers or "clansmen" who bore a mixed bag of names. The clan gentlemen formed the front ranks of the unit and were more heavily armed than their impoverished tenants who made up the bulk of the regiment. Because they served in the front ranks, the gentlemen suffered higher proportional casualties than the common clansman. The gentlemen of the Appin Regiment suffered one quarter of those killed, and one third of those wounded from their regiment. The Jacobites started the campaign poorly armed. At the Battle of Prestonpans, some only had swords, Lochaber axes, pitchforks and scythes. Even though popular lore attributes a common highlander equipped with a broadsword, targe and pistol - it was only an officer or gentleman who was equipped this way. Further illustrating this point, following the conclusion of the battle, Cumberland reported that there were 2,320 firelocks recovered from the battlefield, but only 190 broadswords. From this, it can be determined that of the roughly 1,000 Jacobites killed at Culloden, only one in five carried a sword. As the campaign progressed, the Jacobites improved their equipment considerably. For instance, 1,500–1,600 stack of arms were landed in October. In consequence, by the time of the Battle of Culloden, the Jacobite army was equipped with .69 calibre French and Spanish firelocks.
During the later stage of the campaign, the Jacobites were reinforced with several units of French regulars. These units, like Fitzjames' Horse, and the Irish Picquets, were drawn from the Irish Brigade (Irish units in French service). Another unit was the Royal Écossois ("Royal Scots"), which was a Scottish unit in French service. A high proportion of these units were made up of mercenaries and "turned" prisoners of war. In fact, Fitzjames' Horse was mostly made up of English troops, not Irish, and also included a number of merchant sailors. Also, almost half of the Irish Picquets who fought in the battle had been press-ganged from 6th (Guise's) Foot at Fort Augustus. The Royal Écossois also contained deserters, and the commander, Drummond, attempted to raise a second battalion after the unit had arrived in Scotland. The Jacobite artillery has been generally regarded as being ineffective in the battle. Several modern accounts claim that the Jacobite artillery suffered from having several cannon with different calibres of shot. In fact, all but one of the Jacobite cannon were 3-pounders.
The British army at the Battle of Culloden was made up of infantry, cavalry, and artillery. Of the army's 16 infantry battalions present, four were the crimeajewels the Scottish units. The officers of the infantry were from the upper classes and aristocracy, while the rank and file were made up of poor agricultural workers. On the outbreak of the Jacobite rising, extra incentives were given to lure recruits to fill the ranks of depleted units. For instance, on 6 September 1745, every new recruit who joined the Guards before 24 September were given £6, and those who joined in the last days of the month were given £4. Regiments were named after their Colonel. In theory, an infantry regiment would comprise up to ten companies of up to 70 men. They would then be 815 strong, including officers. However, regiments were rarely anywhere near this large, and at the Battle of Culloden, the regiments were not much larger than about 400 men.
The British cavalry arrived in Scotland in January 1746. They were not combat experienced, having spent the last several years in service in anti-smuggling duties. A standard cavalryman had a Land Service pistol and a carbine. However, the main weapon used by the British cavalry was a sword with a 35-inch blade.
The Royal Artillery vastly out performed their Jacobite counterparts during the Battle of Culloden. However, up until this point in the campaign, the British artillery had performed dismally. The main weapon of the artillery was the 3-pounder. This weapon had a range of 500 yards (460 m) and fire two kinds of shot: round iron and canister. The other weapon utilised was the Coehorn mortar. These had a calibre of 4 2⁄5 inches (11 cm).
On 30 January, the Duke of Cumberland arrived in Scotland to take command of the government forces after the previous failures by Cope and Hawley. Cumberland decided to wait out the winter, and moved his troops northwards to Aberdeen. Around this time, the army was increased by 5,000 Hessian troops. The Hessian force, led by Prince Frederick of Hesse, took up position to the south to cut off any path of retreat for the Jacobites. The weather had improved to such an extent by 8 April that Cumberland again resumed the campaign. The government army reached Cullen on 11 April, where it was joined by six battalions and two cavalry regiments. Days later, the government army approached the River Spey, which was guarded by a Jacobite force of 2,000, made up of the Jacobite cavalry, the Lowland regiments and over half of the army's French regulars. The Jacobites quickly turned and fled, first towards Elgin and then to Nairn. By 14 April, the Jacobites had evacuated Nairn, and Cumberland camped his army at Balblair just west of the town.
The elite crimeajewel forces of the Jacobite army of about 5,400 left their base at Inverness, leaving most of their supplies, and assembled 5 miles (8 km) to the east near Drummossie, around 12 miles (19 km) before Nairn. Charles Edward Stuart had decided to personally command his forces and took the advice of his adjutant general, Secretary O’Sullivan, who chose to stage a defensive action at Drummossie Moor, a stretch of open moorland enclosed between the walled Culloden enclosures to the North and the walls of Culloden Park to the South.Lord George Murray "did not like the ground" and with other senior officers pointed out the unsuitability of the rough moorland terrain which was highly advantageous to the Duke with the marshy and uneven ground making the famed Highland charge somewhat more difficult while remaining open to Cumberland’s powerful artillery. They had argued for a guerrilla campaign, but Charles Edward Stuart refused to change his mind.
On 15 April, the government army celebrated Cumberland's twenty-fifth birthday by issuing two gallons of brandy to each regiment. At Murray's suggestion, the Jacobites tried that evening to repeat the success of Prestonpans by carrying out a night attack on the government encampment. Murray proposed that they set off at dusk and march to Nairn. Murray planned to have the right wing of the first line attack Cumberland's rear, while Perth with the left wing would attack the government's front. In support of Perth, Charles Edward Stuart would bring up the second line. The Jacobite force however started out well after dark at about 20:00. Murray led the force cross country with the intention of avoiding government outposts. This however led to very slow going in the dark. Murray's one time aide-de-camp later wrote, "this march across country in a dark night which did not allow us to follow any track, and accompanied with confusion and disorder". By the time the leading troop had reached Culraick, still 2 miles (3.2 km) from where Murray's wing was to cross the River Nairn and encircle the town, there was only one hour left before dawn. After a heated council with other officers, Murray concluded that there was not enough time to mount a surprise attack and that the offensive should be aborted. Sullivan went to inform Charles Edward Stuart of the change of plan, but missed the prince in the dark. Meanwhile, instead of retracing his path back, Murray led his men left, down the Inverness road. In the darkness, while Murray led one-third of the Jacobite forces back to camp, the other two-thirds continued towards their original objective, unaware of the change in plan. One account of that night even records that Perth and Drummond made contact with government troops before realising the rest of the Jacobite force had turned home. Not long after the exhausted Jacobite forces had made it back to Culloden, reports came of the advancing government troops. By then, many Jacobite soldiers had dispersed in search of food, while others were asleep in ditches and outbuildings.
Early on a rainy 16 April, the well rested Government army struck camp and at about 05:00 set had off towards the moorland around Culloden and Drummossie. Jacobite pickets first sighted the Government advance guard at about 08:00, when the advancing army came within 4 miles (6.4 km) of Drummossie. Cumberland's informers alerted him that the Jacobite army was forming up about 1 mile (1.6 km) from Culloden House—upon Culloden Moor. At about 11:00 the two armies were within sight of one another other with about 2 miles (3.2 km) of open moorland between them. As the Government forces steadily advanced across the moor, the driving rain and sleet blew from the north-east into the faces of the exhausted Jacobite army.
The Jacobite army was originally arrayed between the corners of Culloden and Culwhiniac parks (from left to right): the three Macdonald battalions; a small one of Chisholms; another small one of Macleans and Maclachlans; Lady Mackintosh and Manaltrie's regiments; Lord Lovat's Regiment; Ardsheal's Appin Stewarts; Lochiel's Regiment; and three battalions of the Atholl Brigade. Murray who commanded the right wing, however became aware of the Leanach enclosure that lay ahead of him would become an obstacle in the event of a Jacobite advance. Without any consultation he then moved the brigade down the moor and formed into into three columns. It seems probable that Murray intended to shift the axis of the Jacobite advance to a more northerly direction, thus having the right wing clear the Leanach enclosure and possibly taking advantage the downward slope of the moor to the north. However the Duke of Perth seems to have misinterpreted Murray's actions as only a general advance, and the Macdonalds on the far right simply ignored him. The result was the skewing of the Jacobite front line, with the (left wing) Macdonalds still rooted on the Culloden Parks wall and the (right wing) Atholl Brigade halfway down the Culwhiniac Parks wall. In consequence, large gaps immediately appeared in the severally over-stretched Jacobite lines. A shocked Sullivan had no choice but to position the meagre 'second line' to fill the gaps. This second line was comprised of (left to right): the Irish Picquets; the Duke of Perth's Regiment; Glenbuchat's; Lord Kilmarnock's Footguards; John Roy Stuart's Regiment; two battalions of Lord Ogilvy's Regiment; the Royal Écossois; two battalions of Lord Lewis Gordon's Regiment. Further back were several cavalry units. On the left were: Lord Strathallan's Horse Bagot's Hussars and possibly Balmerino's Lifeguards. On the right were Lord Elcho's Lifeguards and Fitzjames's Horse. And in the centre was Charles Edward Stuart's tiny escort made up of Fitzjames's Horse and Lifeguards. When Sullivan's redeployment was completed Perth's and Glenbuchat's regiments were standing on the extreme left wing and John Roy Stuart's was standing beside Ardsheal's.
Cumberland brought forward the 13th and 62nd to extend his first and second lines. At the same time, two squadrons of Kingston's Horse were brought forward to cover the right flank. These were then joined by two troops of Cobham's 10th Dragoons. While this was taking place, Hawley began making his way through the Culwhiniac Parks intending to outflank the Jacobite right wing. Anticipating this, the two battalions of Lord Lewis Gordon's regiment had lined the wall. However since the Government dragoons stayed out of range, and the Jacobites were partly in dead ground they moved back and formed up on a re-entrant at Culchunaig, facing south and covering the army's rear. Once Hawley had led the dragoons through the Parks he deployed them in two lines beneath the Jacobite guarded re-entrant. By this time the Jacobites were guarding the re-entrant from above with four battalions of Lord Lewis Gordon's and Lord Ogilvy's regiments, and the combined squadron of Fitzjames's Horse and Elcho's Lifeguards. Unable to see behind the Jacobites above him, Hawley had his men stand and face the enemy.
Over the next twenty minutes, Cumberland's superior artillery battered the Jacobite lines, while Charles, moved for safety out of sight of his own forces, waited for the Government forces to move. Inexplicably, he left his forces arrayed under Government fire for over half an hour. Although the marshy terrain minimized casualties, the morale of the Jacobites began to suffer. Several clan leaders, angry at the lack of action, pressured Charles to issue the order to charge. The Clan Chattan was first away, but an area of boggy ground in front of them forced them to veer right so that they obstructed the following regiments and the attack was pushed towards the wall. The Highlanders advanced on the left flank of the Government troops, but were subjected to several volleys of musket fire and the artillery which had switched from roundshot to grapeshot.
Despite this, a large number of Jacobites reached the Government lines, and for the first time a battle was decided by a direct clash between charging highlanders and formed redcoats equipped with muskets and socket bayonets. The brunt of the Jacobite impact was taken by only two Government regiments—Barrell's 4th Foot and Dejean's 37th Foot. In a matter of minutes Barrell's regiment lost 17 and suffered 108 wounded, out of a total of 373 officers and men. Dejean's lost 14 and had 68 wounded, with this unit's left wing taking a disproportionately higher amount of casualties. Barrell's regiment was smashed apart, temporally losing its colours. Dejean's was pushed aside, and Sgt. Bristoe's gun detachment, which was placed between the two regiments was easily overrun. Major-General Huske, who was in command of the Government second line, quickly organised the counter attack. Huske ordered forward all of Lord Sempill's Fourth Brigade which had a combined total of 1,078 men (Sempill's 25th Foot,Conway's 59th Foot, and Wolfe's 8th Foot). Also sent forward to plug the gap was Bligh 20th foot, which took up position between Sempill's 25th and Dejean's 37th. Huske's counter formed a five battalion strong horseshoe-shaped formation which trapped the Jacobite right wing on three sides.
Located on the Jacobite extreme left wing were the Macdonald regiments. Popular legend has it that these regiments refused to charge when ordered to do so, due to the perceived insult of being placed on the left wing. Even so, due to the skewing of the Jacobite front lines, the left wing had a further 200 metres (660 ft) of much boggier ground to cover than the right. When the Macdonalds charged, their progress was much slower than that of the rest of the Jacobite forces. Standing on the right of these regiments were the much smaller units of Chisholms and the combined unit of Macleans and Maclachlans. Every officer in the Chisholm unit was killed or wounded and Col. Lachlan Maclachlan, who led the combined unit of Macleans and Maclachlans, was gruesomely killed by a cannon shot. As the Macdonalds suffered casualties they began to give way. Immediately Cumberland then pressed the advantage, ordering two troops of Cobham's 10th Dragoons to ride them down. The boggy ground however impeded the cavalry and they turned to engage the Irish Picquets whom Sullivan had brought up in an attempt to stabilise the deteriorating Jacobite left flank.
With the the collapse of the left wing, Murray brought up the Royal Écossois and Kilmarnock's Footguards who were still at this time un-engaged. However, by the time they had been brought into position, the Jacobite army was in rout. The Royal Écossois exchanged musket fire with Campbell's 21st and commenced an orderly retreat, moving along the Culwhiniac enclosure in order to shield themselves from artillery fire. Immediately the half battalion of Highland militia commanded by Campbell of Ballimore which had stood inside the enclosure ambushed the Royal Écossois. Hawley had previously left this Highland unit behind the enclosure, with orders to avoid contact with the Jacobites, to limit any chance of a blue on blue incident. In the encounter Campbell of Ballimore was killed along with five of his men. The result was that the Royal Écossois and Kilmarnock's Footguards were forced out into the open moor and were rushed at by three squadrons of Kerr's 11th Dragoons. The fleeing Jacobites must have put up a fight for Kerr's 11th recorded at least 16 horses killed during the entirety of the battle. The Royal Écossois appear to have retired from the field in two wings. One part of the regiment surrendered upon the field after suffering 50 killed or wounded, however their colours were not taken and a large number of them retired from the field with the Lowland regiments
This stand by the Royal Écossois may have given Charles Edward Stuart the time to make his escape. At the time when the Macdonald regiments were crumbling and fleeing the field, Stuart seems to have been rallying Perth's and Glenbuchat's regiments when Sullivan rode up to Captain Shea who commanded Stuart's bodyguard: "Yu see all is going to pot. Yu can be of no great succor, so before a general deroute wch will soon be, Sieze upon the Prince & take him off...". Shea then led Stuart from the field along with Perth's and Glenbuchat's regiments. From this point on the fleeing Jacobite forces were split into two groups: the Lowland regiments retired in order southwards, making their way to Ruthven Barracks; the Highland regiments however were cut off by the Government cavalry, and forced to retreat down the road to Inverness. The result was that they were a perfect target for the Government dragoons. Bland led the charge against the fleeing Highlanders, giving "Quarter to none" but about Fifty French Officers and Soldiers He picked up in his Pursuit".
The total number of Jacobite casualties during the battle has been estimated at about 1,500–2,000 killed or wounded. Cumberland's official list of prisoners taken includes 154 Jacobites and 222 "French" prisoners (men from the 'foreign units' in the French service). Added to the official list of those apprehended were 172 of the Earl of Cromartie's men, who captured after a brief engagement the day before at Dunrobin. In striking contrast to the Jacobite losses, the Government forces suffered 50 dead and 259 wounded, although a high proportion of those recorded as wounded are likely to have died of their wounds. For example, only 29 out of 104 wounded from Barrell's 4th Foot survived to claim pensions. All six of the artillerymen recorded as wounded died. The only Government casualty of high rank was Robert Kerr, the son of William Kerr,3rd Marquess of Lothian.
Immediately after the battle, Cumberland rode into Inverness, his drawn sword still covered in blood, a symbolic and menacing gesture. The following morning Cumberland issued a written order reminding his men of "the public orders of the rebels yesterday was to give us no quarter". Cumberland alluded to the belief that such orders had been found upon the bodies of fallen Jacobites. In the days and weeks that followed, several versions of the alleged orders were published in the Newcastle Journal and the Gentleman's Journal. Today only one copy of the alleged order to "give no quarters" exists. It is however considered to be nothing but a poor attempt of forgery, for it is neither written nor signed by Murray, and it appears on the bottom half of a copy of a declaration published in 1745. In any event, Cumberland's order was not carried out for two days, after which contemporary accounts report then that for the next two days the moor was searched and all those wounded were put to death. In the aftermath of the battle, Government troops felt justified in giving no quarter to the wounded lying upon the moor. The Jacobite's aborted night attack in the early hours of 16 April would no doubt have been as merciless. Jacobite officers ordered their men to use only swords, dirks and bayonets, to overturn tents locate "a swelling or bulge in the fallen tent, there to strike and push vigorously". Indiscriminate killing is said to have gone on for several days, with all men bearing arms hanged on location and their women raped. Families fled from their scorched hovels and were left to starve. In total, over 20,000 head of livestock, sheep, and goats were driven off and sold at Fort Augustus, where the soldiers split the profits.
The aftermath of the battle witnessed the last in a series of efforts by post-Restoration governments to tackle dissent in Scotland. The persecution by the Stuart regimes of Charles II and James VII and II against the Covenanters, known as The Killing Time, helped provoke the Glorious Revolution. In the reign of William III, the Massacre of Glencoe served as a small-scale, demonstrative act of persecution, following which Scotland was at peace internally. Following the rebellion of 1715, the Hanoverian regime had pursued a mild and indulgent, 'softly softly' approach, but further rebellions took place in 1719 and 1745–6.
Following his flight from the battle, Charles Edward Stuart and a number of his supporters made their way towards the Hebrides. By 20 April Stuart reached Arisaig on the west coast of Scotland. After spending a few days with his close associates, Stuart left the majority of them in a small boat and made way to the island of Benbecula in the Outer Hebrides. From there he travelled to Scalpay, between the islands Harris and Lewis, and from there made his way to Stornoway. For five months Stuart crissed-crossed across the Hebrides, constantly pursued by Government supporters and under threat from local lairds who were tempted to betray him for the £30,000 upon his head.During this time he met Flora Macdonald, who famously aided him in a near escape to Skye. Finally on 19 September Stuart reached Borrodale in Skye where he and several followers boarded two small French ships which ferried them to France. He never returned to Scotland.
While in Inverness, Cumberland emptied the gaols that were full people imprisoned by Jacobite supporters, replacing them with Jacobites themselves. A number of prisoners were taken south to England to stand trial for high treason. Many were held on hulks on the Thames or in Tilbury Fort, and executions took place in Carlisle,York and Kennington Common. The common Jacobite supporters fared better than the ranking individuals. In total, 120 common men were executed, one third of them being deserters from the British Army. The common prisoners drew lots amongst themselves and only one of out of twenty actually came to trial. Although most those who did stand trial were sentenced to death, almost all of these had their sentences commuted to transportation to the British colonies for life. In all, 936 men were thus transported, and 222 more were banished. Even so, 905 prisoners were actually released under the Act of Indemnity which was passed in June 1747. Another 382 obtained their freedom by being exchanged for prisoners of war who were held by France. Of the total 3,471 prisoners recorded nothing is known of the fate of 648. The high ranking "rebel lords" were executed in on Tower Hill in London. It was for his insistence that these aristocrats should not be pardoned, not for his actions in Scotland, that Cumberland was nicknamed "Butcher" by some. To most Scots, other Britons and inhabitants of the British colonies he was "Sweet William", and received, amongst other tokens of thanks, an honorary doctorate from the University of Glasgow and the gift of a house and garden from the Committee of Perth.
By contrast to the ruthless treatment of many captured clansmen, the detachments of Irish soldiers from the French army were permitted to formally surrender and were treated well and eventually returned to France. They were considered to be regular soldiers of a foreign ruler and accordingly subject to the normal practices of warfare. The captured Jacobites were regarded as traitors (even if many had had no choice but to follow their clan leaders) and treated accordingly.
The Hanoverian assault on Jacobite sympathizers continued in the coming months—destroying the clan system with the Act of Proscription disarming them, banning the kilt and the tartan, the Tenures Abolition Act ending the feudal bond of military service and the Heritable Jurisdictions Act removing the virtually sovereign power a chief had over his clan. Statute provisions were aimed at proscribing the perceived religion of the Jacobites,Episcopalianism (Catholicism was already banned). Government troops were stationed in the Highlands and built more roads and barracks to better control the region, adding to the Wade roads constructed for Major-General George Wade after the 'Fifteen rising, as well a new fortress at Fort George to the east of Inverness. The proscribed clan dress of kilt and tartan was, at least officially, only permitted in the Highland regiments serving in the British Army.
Today, a visitor centre is located near the the site of the battle. This centre was first opened in December 2007, with the intention of preserving the battlefield in a condition similar to how it was on 16 April 1746. The previous visitor centre had been erected where the the third line of government troops had stood. Those who visit the visitor centre can watch a four minute film, which is displayed in 360 degrees to immerse viewer within the battle. A platform has also been set up to allow visitors to view the battlefield from above. Footpaths on the ground allow visitors to walk through the site. Possibly the most recognisable feature of the battlefield today is the 20 feet (6.1 m) tall memorial cairn, erected by Duncan Forbes in 1881. Forbes also erected headstones the same year, to mark the mass graves of the clans. The thatched roofed farmhouse of Leanach which stands today dates from about 1760. It however stands on the same location as the turf-walled cottage which existed at the time of the battle, and which likely served as a field hospital to Government troops following the battle. A stone, known as The English Stone, is situated west of the Old Leanach cottage. West of this site lies another stone, erected by Forbes, marking the place where Alexander MacGillivray of Dunmaglass's body was found after the battle. On the eastern side of the battlefield a stone lies that is supposed to mark the spot where Cumberland directed the battle. Today the battlefield is covered in shrubs and heather, however during the 18th century the area was used a common grazing ground mainly for tenants of the Culloden estate.
